توجه جنسي: الفرق بين النسختين

'''التوجه الجنسي''' هو نمط مستمر من الانجذاب الرومانسي أو الجنسي (أو كليهما) لأشخاص من الجنس الآخر أو من نفس الجنس أو لكلا الجنسين. تتضمن هذه الانجذابات بشكل عام [[مغايرة جنسية|المغايرة الجنسية]] و[[مثلية جنسية|المثلية الجنسية]] و[[ازدواجية الميول الجنسية]]،<ref name="AmPsycholAssn-whatis">{{cite web|title=Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|accessdate=10 أغسطس 2013|url=http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx|archivedate=August 8, 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808032050/http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx|المسار=|العنوان=|التاريخ=|الموقع=|الناشر=|الأخير=|الأول=}}</ref><ref name="AmPsychiAssn-Sexual orientation">{{Cite web|title=Sexual Orientation|publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]]|accessdate=1 يناير 2013|url=http://healthyminds.org/More-Info-For/GayLesbianBisexuals.aspx|archivedate=22 يوليو 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722080052/http://www.healthyminds.org/More-Info-For/GayLesbianBisexuals.aspx|المسار=|العنوان=|التاريخ=|الموقع=|الناشر=|الأخير=|الأول=}}</ref> في حين تُعرف ال[[لاجنسية]] (انعدام الانجذاب الجنسي للآخرين) أحياناً على أنها التوجهالفئة الرابعالرابعة.<ref name="Sexual orientation">{{cite journal|last=Melby|first=Todd|title=Asexuality gets more attention, but is it a sexual orientation?|journal=Contemporary Sexuality|date=November 2005|volume=39|issue=11|pages=1, 4–5}}</ref><ref name="Sex and society">{{cite book|title=Sex and Society|volume=2|pages=82–83|isbn=978-0-7614-7905-5|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2009|editor=Marshall Cavendish Corporation|contribution=Asexuality|accessdate=2 فبراير 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVDZchwkIMEC&pg=PA82|العنوان=|الأخير=|الأول=|الناشر=|السنة=|الرقم المعياري=|المكان=|الصفحات=|اقتباس=|via=}}</ref>

إن هذه الفئات هي جوانب لطبيعة أكثر دقة عن [[هوية جنسية|الهوية الجنسية]] ومصطلحاتها.<ref name="AmPsycholAssn-whatis"/> على سبيل المثال، قد يستخدم الناس تسميات أخرى مثل "[[جامعة جنسية|جامع جنسي]]" أو "[[تعددية جنسية|متعدد جنسي]]"،<ref name="Firestein">{{cite book | first = Beth A.| last = Firestein | title = Becoming Visible: Counseling Bisexuals Across the Lifespan | publisher = [[Columbia University Press]]|page = 9| year = 2007| accessdate =3 October 3,أكتوبر 2012| isbn =0231137249| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1pCKkZmBU1EC&pg=PA9|العنوان=|الأخير=|الأول=|الناشر=|السنة=|الرقم المعياري=|المكان=|الصفحات=|اقتباس=|via=}}</ref> أو قد لا يستخدموا أي تسميات على الإطلاق.<ref name="AmPsycholAssn-whatis"/> وفقاً [[جمعية علم النفس الأمريكية|لجمعية علم النفس الأمريكية]] فإن التوجه الجنسي "يشير أيضاً لإحساس الشخص بهوية تستند على تلك الانجذابات وعلى سلوكيات متعلقة وعلى عضوية في مجتمع يتشارك فيه الآخرون الانجذابات ذاتها.<ref name="AmPsycholAssn-whatis"/><ref name="Calif-amici">{{cite web|url=http://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/Amer_Psychological_Assn_Amicus_Curiae_Brief.pdf| page= 30|title=Case No. S147999 in the Supreme Court of the State of California, In re Marriage Cases Judicial Council Coordination Proceeding No. 4365(...) - APA California Amicus Brief&nbsp;— As Filed|others=Page 33 n. 60 (p. 55 per Adobe Acrobat Reader);citation per ''id.'', Brief, p. 6 n. 4 (p. 28 per Adobe Acrobat Reader).|format=PDF |accessdate=March 13, 2013}}</ref> '' Androphilia '' و''شبق ''هي المصطلحات المستخدمة في [[علوم سلوكية|العلوم السلوكية]] لوصف التوجه الجنسي كبديل عن التصور المفاهيمي لثنائية الجنس. "Androphilia" تصف الانجذاب الجنسي إلى ال[[ذكورة]]، أما'' "شبق" '' تصف الانجذاب الجنسي إلى ال[[أنوثة]].<ref name="schmidt2010">Schmidt J (2010). Migrating Genders: Westernisation, Migration, and Samoan Fa'afafine, p. 45 Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-4094-0273-2</ref> يتداخل مصطلح "'التفضيل الجنسي" بشكل كبير مع التوجه الجنسي، ولكنه يجري تميزه عموماً في الأبحاث النفسية.<ref name="Preference">{{cite news|title= Avoiding Heterosexual Bias in Language|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|accessdate=July 19, 2011|url=http://www.colby.edu/psychology/APA/Gender.pdf}}</ref> الشخص الذي يُعرّف نفسه على أنه مزدوج الميول الجنسي، على سبيل المثال، قد يفضل جنسياً أحد الجنسين على الآخر.<ref name="Rosario">{{cite journal | last1 = Rosario | first1 = M. | last2 = Schrimshaw | first2 = E. | last3 = Hunter | first3 = J. | last4 = Braun | first4 = L. | year = 2006 | title = Sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time | url = | journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 43 | issue = 1| pages = 46–58 | doi=10.1080/00224490609552298}}</ref> كما قد يوحي "التفضيل الجنسي" بدرجة من الاختيار الطوعي،<ref name="Preference"/><ref>{{cite book |title=The republic of choice: law, authority, and culture |last=Friedman |first=Lawrence Meir |year=1990 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location= |isbn=978-0-674-76260-2 |page=92 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6iYwTFY5mIC&lpg=PA92|accessdate=8 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Sexual revolutions: psychoanalysis, history and the father |last=Heuer |first=Gottfried |year=2011 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location= |isbn=978-0-415-57043-5 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d3s_vH5YV-gC&lpg=PA49|accessdate=8 January 2011}}</ref>

ومع ذلك، فإن إحدى [[إحصائية|الإحصائيات]] التي تمت بعد حذف الشذوذالمثلية الجنسيالجنسية من الكتيب بأربع سنوات قد كشفت عن اعتقاد 69% من الأطباء النفسيين بالولايات المتحدة بأن الشذوذ الجنسي "تكيّف مرضي"، كما أن إحصائية أخرى أحدث عمرًا قد كشفت عن اعتقاد أغلب علماء النفس في العالم بأن ممارسة الشذوذ الجنسي هي علامة من علامات المرض النفسي.

بسبب كون التوجه الجنسي معقداً وذو أبعاد متعددة، ذكر بعض الأكاديميين والباحثين خصوصاً في مجال [[دراسات أحرار الجنس]] بأن التوجه الجنسي ذو سمة تاريخية و[[بنيوية اجتماعية]]. في عام 1976 جادل الفيلسوف والمؤرخ الفرنسي [[ميشيل فوكو]] في كتابه "تاريخ النشاط الجنسي" أن المثلية الجنسية باعتبارها هوية لم تكن موجودة في القرن الثامن عشر. وعوضاً عن ذلك تحدث الناس عن "اللواط" وهي يشير إلى أفعال جنسية. كان اللواط جريمة غالباً ما تم تجاهلها، ولكن عوقب عليها بشدة في بعض الأحيان. حيث كتب: "النشاط الجنسي هو من اختراع الدولة الحديثة و[[الثورةثورة صناعية|والثورة الصناعية]] و[[الرأسماليةرأسمالية|والرأسمالية]]".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dMAtGvry_IMC&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=china+heterosexuality+love+western&source=web&ots=PKv2BfyPpd&sig=s43w6PzlNOgefEsjpHViwrxkM6A&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result ''Chinese Femininities, Chinese Masculinities: A Reader''], by Susan Brownell & Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom (Univ. of Calif. Press, 2002 (ISBN 0520221168, ISBN 978-0-520-22116-1)). Quote: "The problem with sexuality: Some scholars have argued that maleness and femaleness were not closely linked to sexuality in China. Michel Foucault's ''[[The History of Sexuality]]'' (which deals primarily with Western civilization and western Europe) began to influence some China scholars in the 1980s. Foucault's insight was to demonstrate that sexuality has a history; it is not fixed psycho-biological drive that is the same for all humans according to their sex, but rather it is a cultural construct inseparable from gender constructs. After unmooring sexuality from biology, he anchored it in history, arguing that this thing we now call sexuality came into existence in the eighteenth-century West and did not exist previously in this form. "Sexuality" is an invention of the modern state, the industrial revolution, and capitalism. Taking this insight as a starting point, scholars have slowly been compiling the history of sexuality in China. The works by Tani Barlow, discussed above, were also foundational in this trend. Barlow observes that, in the West, heterosexuality is the primary site for the production of gender: a woman truly becomes a woman only in relation to a man's heterosexual desire. By contrast, in China before the 1920s the "jia" (linage unit, family) was the primary site for the production of gender: marriage and sexuality were to serve the lineage by producing the next generation of lineage members; personal love and pleasure were secondary to this goal. Barlow argues that this has two theoretical implications: (1) it is not possible to write a Chinese history of heterosexuality, sexuality as an institution, and sexual identities in the European metaphysical sense, and (2) it is not appropriate to ground discussions of Chinese gender processes in the sexed body so central in "Western" gender processes. Here she echoes Furth's argument that, before the early twentieth century, sex-identity grounded on anatomical difference did not hold a central place in Chinese constructions of gender. And she echoes the point illustrated in detail in Sommer's chapter on male homosexuality in the Qing legal code: a man could engage in homosexual behavior without calling into question his manhood so long as his behavior did not threaten the patriarchal Confucian family structure."</ref>

يجادل البعض على أن التوجه الجنسي كمفهومبمفهومه تطور في الدول الغربية الصناعية، وهناك جدل فيما يتعلق بعالمية تطبيق المفهوم في المجتمعات أو الثقافات الأخرى.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFHX6uu19ZEC&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=sexual+orientation+is+a+western+concept&source=bl&ots=Lj2ODgARED&sig=6AUpbyJbsvbyqUxbjKmnXfdZX3c&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result ''The Psychology of Sexual Orientation, Behavior, and identity''], by Louis Diamant & Richard D. McAnulty (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995 (ISBN 0313285012, ISBN 978-0-313-28501-1) (522 pages). Quote from page 81: Although sexual orientation is a loaded Western concept, the term is still a useful one, if we avoid imposing Western thoughts and meanings associated with our language on non-Western, non contemporary cultures.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zikdWhuosAgC&pg=PA478&lpg=PA478&dq=sexual+orientation+western+concept&source=web&ots=afh1aodckX&sig=P6TcEFjCK4Lc-OSh251ZTvt1o1o&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result ''The Handbook of Social Work Direct Practice''], by Paula Allen-Meares & Charles D. Garvin & Contributors Paula Allen-Meares & Charles D. Garvin (SAGE, 2001 (ISBN 0761914994, ISBN 978-0-7619-1499-0) (733 pages). Quote from page 478: The concept of sexual orientation is a product of contemporary Western thought.</ref><ref>[http://www.radstats.org.uk/no083/Ross83.pdf ''Sexual behavior and the non-construction of sexual identity: Implications for the analysis of men who have sex with men and women who have sex with women.''], <nowiki>[</nowiki>by?<nowiki>]</nowiki> Michael W. Ross & Ann K. Brooks. Quote from Page 9: Chou (2000) notes in his analysis of the lack of applicability of western concepts of sexual identity in China, just because a person has a particular taste for a specific food doesn't mean that we label them in terms of the food that they prefer. A similar approach to sexual appetite as not conferring identity may be operating in this sample. McIntosh (1968) has previously noted that people who do not identify with the classic western, white gay/lesbian role may not necessarily identify their behavior as homosexual;</ref> تختلف المفاهيم الغير غربيةالغيرغربية حول النشاط الجنسي الذكري بشكل أساسي من الطريقة التي يُنظر ويصنفويُصنف بها للنشاطالنشاط الجنسي تحت المنظومة الغربية للتوجه الجنسي.<ref>[http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/1/3/4/8/p113482_index.html ''Transnational Transgender: Reading Sexual Diversity in Cross-Cultural Contexts Through Film and Video''] <nowiki>[</nowiki>by?<nowiki>]</nowiki> Ryan, Joelle Ruby (American Studies Association). Quote: Many of the projects which have historically investigated sex/gender variance in non-Western contexts have been ethnographies and anthropological studies. Due to strong and lingering problems with ethnocentrism, many of these research studies have attempted to transpose a Western understanding of sex, gender and sexuality onto cultures in Asia, Latin America and Africa. Terms such as "homosexual," "transvestite," and "transsexual" all arose out of Western concepts of identity based on science, sexology and medicine and often bear little resemblance to sex/gender/sexuality paradigms in the varied cultures of the developing world.</ref> {{unreliable source?|date=أكتوبر 2011}} كما تم التشكيك في صحة مفهوم التوجه الجنسي فيضمن المجتمع الغربي الصناعي بتعرّيفه في [[عالم غربي|الغرب]] على أنه ظاهرة بيولوجية بدلاً من بناء اجتماعي خاص بمنطقة وفترة ما.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Waites.pdf |format=PDF |title=Sexual Orientation, Human Rights and Global Politics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Matthew |last=Waits |title=Matthew Waits of Dept. Sociology, Anthropology & Applied Social Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom |url=http://www.gla.ac.uk/departments/sociology/staff/waites.html}} Quote from the Abstract: The paper problematises utilisation of the concept of 'sexual orientation' in moves to revise human rights conventions and discourses in the light of social constructionist and queer theory addressing sexuality, which has convincingly suggested that 'sexual orientation' is a culturally specific concept, misrepresenting many diverse forms of sexuality apparent in comparative sociological and anthropological research conducted worldwide. I will argue in particular that 'orientation' is a concept incompatible with bisexuality when interpreted within the context of dominant dualistic assumptions about sex, gender and desire in western culture (suggested by Judith Butler's concept of the 'heterosexual matrix'). I will discuss the implications of the this for interpreting contemporary struggles among competing social movements, NGO and governmental actors involved in contesting the relationship of sexuality to human rights as defined by the United Nations.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://sexualorientation.info/thesis/Resisting%20Orientation%20-%20C1.pdf |format=PDF |title=Resisting Orientation}} McIntosh argues that the labeling process should be the focus of inquiry and that homosexuality should be seen as a social role rather than a condition. Role is more useful than condition, she argues, because roles (of heterosexual and homosexual) can be dichotomised in a way that behavior cannot. She draws upon cross-cultural data to demonstrate that in many societies 'there may be much homosexual behavior, but there are no "homosexuals"' (p71).</ref>