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حصار القسطنطينية (717-718): الفرق بين النسختين

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[[File:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|250px|thumb|right|alt=medieval miniature showing a siphon-equipped sailing ship discharging flames on another vessel|Depiction of the use of [[Greek fire]], miniature from the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'']]
 
الوضع بدا في التحسن في فصل الربيع عندما أرسل الخليفة [[عمر بن عبد العزيز]] (ص 717-720)، أسطولين جديدين لمساعدة المحاصرين ': 400 سفينة من [[مصر]] في ظل قائد اسمه سفيان و 360 سفنسفينة من [[إفريقية | أفريقيا]] تحت قيادة يزيد، كل السفن كانت محملة بالامدادات والأسلحة. وفي الوقت نفسه، بدأ جيش جديد يسير عبر آسيا الصغرى للمساعدة في الحصار. عندما, وعندما وصلت أساطيلالأساطيل جديدةالجديدة فيإلى [[بحر مرمرة]]، وأبقىأبقت على مسافة من البيزنطيين وترسوورست على الشاطئ الآسيوي. كان المصريون في خليج نيقوميديا قرب الحديثةحي [[توزلا (حي) | توزلا]] والأفارقة جنوب خلقيدونية (في [[Küçükyalı | Satyros]]، [[مالتيب، اسطنبول | بريان]] و [[كارتال]] إيمان).Most of the Arab fleets' crews were composed of [[Copts|Christian Egyptians]], however, and they began deserting to the Byzantines upon their arrival. Notified by the Egyptians of the advent and disposition of the Arab reinforcements, Leo launched his fleet in an attack against the new Arab fleets. Crippled by the defection of their crews, and helpless against Greek fire, the Arab ships were destroyed or captured along with the weapons and supplies they carried. Constantinople was now safe from a seaborne attack.<ref>{{harvnb|Guilland|1959|p=121}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|pp=546, 548}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=130}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|pp=347–348}}.</ref> On land too the Byzantines were victorious: their troops managed to ambush the advancing Arab army under a commander named Mardasan and destroy it in the hills around [[Sapanca|Sophon]], south of Nicomedia.<ref>{{harvnb|Guilland|1959|p=122}};{{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|p=546}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|pp=130–131}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=348}}.</ref>
 
Constantinople could now be easily resupplied by sea and the city's fishermen went back to sea, as the Arab fleet did not sail again. Still suffering from hunger and pestilence, the Arabs lost a major battle against the Bulgars, who killed, according to Theophanes, 22,000. It is unclear, however, whether the Bulgars attacked the Arab encampment because of their treaty with Leo or whether the Arabs strayed into Bulgar territory seeking provisions, as reported by the Syriac ''[[Chronicle of 846]]''. Michael the Syrian mentions that the Bulgars participated in the siege from the beginning, with attacks against the Arabs as they marched through Thrace and subsequently on their encampment, but this is not corroborated elsewhere.<ref>{{harvnb|Canard|1926|pp=90–91}}; {{harvnb|Guilland|1959|pp=122, 123}}; {{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|p=546}}; {{harvnb|Lilie|1976|p=131}}.</ref> The siege had clearly failed, and Caliph Umar sent orders to Maslama to retreat. After thirteen months of siege, on 15 August 718, the Arabs departed. The date coincided with the feast of the [[Dormition of the Theotokos]] (Assumption of Mary), and it was to her that the Byzantines ascribed their victory. The retreating Arabs were not hindered or attacked on their return, but their fleet lost more ships in a storm in the Marmara Sea while other ships were set afire by ashes from the volcano of [[Santorini]], and some of the survivors were captured by the Byzantines, so that Theophanes claims that only five vessels made it back to Syria.<ref>{{harvnb|Mango|Scott|1997|p=550}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=349}}.</ref> Arab sources claim that altogether 150,000 Muslims perished during the campaign, a figure which, according to the Byzantinist [[John Haldon]], "while certainly inflated, is nevertheless indicative of the enormity of the disaster in medieval eyes".<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=83}}.</ref>
مجلوبة من «https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/حصار_القسطنطينية_(717-718)»